Longitudinal studies. In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. 93. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. 119. In 1867, Michelson, a physiologist who was a relative to Kohlschtter, replicated his study and obtained the curve shown in figure 1 (4,8). Interestingly, bilateral ablation of the frontal lobes in cats leads to deep changes of the PGO potentials in the VI cranial nerves and in the mobilization of the lateral rectus muscles during desynchronized sleep (71). Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). 109. Much effort was devoted to searching for parallels between physiological aspects of REM sleep and characteristics of associated dreams, with modest results. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. Rerum Natura, I et II. Electroencerph Clin Neurophysiol 1964;17:617-29. J Physiol (Paris) 1984;79:365-74. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. In humans it has been shown that not only EEG desynchronization but also increase in vegetative functions, such as heart rate and ventilation (27), accompany mental activity. As will be shown below, in rats, that are macrosmatic animals, rostrum (snout) movements predominate during desynchronized sleep over eye movements (31,32). The same holds true for animals that live in water, such as fishes, molusks, crustacea and other similar animals; it is impossible to invoke as a proof that they do sleep the shutting of their eyes, inasmuch as they do not have eyelids but it is obvious that they periodically do rest, immobile, what perhaps does explain why at night their predators attack them heavily and devour them. Maquet et al. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. This is an additional fact to point to the activation of other mechanisms capable of producing wakefulness and desynchronized sleep, including dreaming. 112. Before 2011 Dec;20(4):998-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005. 13. Consciousness in waking and dreaming: the roles of neuronal oscillation and neuromodulation in determining similarities and differences. This may well reflect auditory dreams, as has been found in humans (36,37). In: Baust, W. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. What is the Nature, 2002, submitted. The lag between tachycardia and eye movements may be related to all the neural processes that are involved in the phases preceding adn succeeding the oniric behavior, including the very identification of the dream content. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. In rats we found similar potentials in the amygdala as related to olfactory dreams, expressed as rostrum movements (32). Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. The discovery of the close association between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming and development of sleep laboratory techniques ushered in a new era in the study of dreams. Candia et al. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. This allows us to see the irrational as a normal event, while emotional processing and symbolic identities can be explored. 106. 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. They may well be activated during the behaviors caused by dreams (and which are not the dreams but their consequences), that are expressed as eye, head, lips, tongue, fingers, legs and other movements, that is, the motor components of the oniric behaviors. Such a recovery means that other mechanisms are put into action that are able to generate not only wakefulness but desynchronized sleep as well. Aristotle (1), who had carefully observed several animal species while asleep, noticed that movements of several of their body parts were quite similar to those performed by humans during dreaming. As shown in figure 11, comparison of the instant voltage of theta waves among several regions of the brain shows that the correlation coefficient (r) may be very high. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. 99. Dement WC. Such patterns mimic oniric eye movements, which may occur in functional coincidence or not with the visual scenes that are dreamed of. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. Brain activity during this time keeps us functioning and ready to process information when we wake up the next morning! Bookshelf With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically. Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. From the spinal cord Marini (1997) recorded slow (delta) regularly oscillating waves during desynchronized sleep (81), which may be related to activation of spinal neurons during dreaming. 134. Vision is our predominant sensory channel, so much so that if we hear a sound we immediately convey the eyes to the source of the sound, trying to identify its origin, even if vision is absent. At the end of the 19th century several authors published on oniric activity. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. (ed. Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. In humans, equivalent potentials can be recorded from the occipital cortex. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. Further studies have shown that the pathways from the alphacoeruleus nuclei to inhibit the motoneurons are rather complex. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). Kluger J. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. If this hypothesis is correct, it is no surprise that the phases of wakefulness and sleep are expressed in the cerebellar cortex by means of electrophysiological potentials. 130. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:22-3. 18. Jung R, Kornmller AE. 56. Kohyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Nikami T, yamaki T, Veda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake. Neuroscience 1997;81:893-926. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. Science 1978;201:269-72. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. Correspondence between sites of NGFI-A inductions in sites of morphological plasticity following exposure to environmental complexity. Mirmiran M. The function of fetal neonatal rapid eye movement sleep. The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. WebHe says the function of dreams is that by reproducing difficult or unsolved life situations or experiences, the dream aids towards a solving or resolution of the problems. 33. For instance, during desynchronized sleep theta waves, in rats, are highly coherent in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the fronto-parietal cortex, as well as with the hippocampus (78). Apparently, the main cause of such a reduction of blood pressure and heart rate is the active inhibition of the baroreceptor reflexes during this phase of sleep. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. Differentiating Oneiric Stupor in Agrypnia Excitata From Dreaming Disorders. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. Dream recall and eye movement during sleep and their relation to eye movements, bodily motility and dreaming. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1966;21:562-77. Control of ventilation during sleep. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:25-44. WebPsychoanalytic theory of dream: Advanced by Freud, the psychoanalytic theory of dream stands as the most valid and fundamental among all the theories of dream. Brain Res 2002, submitted. 100. Front Neurol. 14. Roffwarg et al. 87. Therefore, any neural event, be it running or just thinking, or dreaming, requires a large amount of oxygen, which is carried to the nervous system by the blood through powerful hemodynamic adjustments, such as increase in blood pressure, heart rate and central blood flow (21,25,26). Advances in Sleep Research, vol. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological 50. When any part of the brain programs a behavior it sends the program to the cerebellum. The first oscillation lasts around two hours, when sleep attains its deepest level; the ensuing cycles last less and their depth tends to decrease until arousal finally occurs, a sequence that recent research has fully confirmed. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. It is interesting to consider that while muscles all over the body are paralyzed during sleep, respiration is little affected, except that some muscles in the upper respiratory airways are inhibited during sleep (44). C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1938;128:533-9. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Consequently, Foulkes concludes that they do not dream but this conclusion is probably incorrect, inasmuch as at this age children have a highly limited narrating capacity and their poor reports about dreams are certainly linked to such a limitation, not their absence. Gottesman C, Gandolfo G, Zernicki B. When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. It seems that a systematic investigation regarding the threshold to different types of stimulation is still lacking and should be performed, in order to establish which kinds of stimulation and effective thresholds are able to awaken humans and non-humans during sleep. In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. Takakusaki K, Ohta y, Mori S. Single medullary reticulospinal neurons exert postsynaptic inhibitory effects via inhibitory interneurons upon alpha-motoneurons innervating cat hindlimb muscles. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. 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